Composition of whole flaxseed produced in North Dakota, average of 11 cultivars. Its yellow color when ground blends well as a food ingredient. Some other food uses of flaxseed are: ready-to-eat breakfast cereals, breakfast drinks, salad dressings made with cold-pressed flaxseed oil, salad toppings, biscuits, meat extenders, crackers, soups, bagels, fiber bars, and cakes.
Flaxseed flour is used commercially in breads in the United States by one or more large bakeries selling thousands of loaves per day Burckhardt and by many bakeries and chain stores in Canada. Flaxseed once ground or processed can be fed as an ingredient to poultry. The increase in yolk polyunsaturated fatty acid PUFA is accompanied by substantial decrease in saturated fatty acid, resulting in a healthy fat profile and more nutritional egg.
Feeding flaxseed to laying hens increases the omega-3 fatty acid in the egg by 6 to 8 times, making one egg equal to g 4 oz of cold water fish as a source of the omega-3 fatty acids. Several researchers have looked at the use of flaxseed in dairy cattle diets in an attempt to influence milk-fat composition. However, more research is needed before feeding flaxseed to dairy cattle will be a commercial reality.
Researchers suggest that feeding flaxseed to breeding chickens and sows can increase the level of unsaturated fatty acids in the young chick and piglet. It is felt that these young animals may have tissue deficiencies in omega-3 fatty acids.
Their health and livability may improve as a consequence of receiving more omega-3 fatty acids via their mothers. In the pet food industry, flaxseed is attracting attention from researchers. Feeding flaxseed may improve pet health in a similar manner as it does human health. No notable differences were evident in terms of the percentage of cattle treated for bovine respiratory disease, though cattle tended to require fewer retreatments when fed the diet containing flax. Death losses among stressed feeder calves were numerically highest for cattle fed beef tallow, and were lowest for those fed the diet containing flax.
Growth performance and immunity can potentially be influenced by the source of dietary lipid. The principal use of oilseed flax in the past has been for its linseed oil which is used in paints and coatings and other industrial uses. The use of modified other vegetable oils and petroleum products in place of linseed oil led to the reduced flax crop area.
Paints and coatings containing linseed oil still are the highest quality and most durable of products. The linseed oil meal LSOM by-product left from oil extraction was and is used as an animal feed.
Linseed oil has recently been used as a diluent in paints and coatings. Crops motions in the canopy induced by wind are then described in literature in relation to wind characteristics. In the absence of plants, the horizontal distribution of wind mean velocity is logarithmic, increasing with the height, and exists as a so-called boundary layer flow Finnigan, ; de Langre, Conversely, in a canopy, wind that bends over the plants as it passes, occurs as a flow within an inner boundary layer, also called canopy layer; it is then associated with the outer boundary layer flow above the canopy.
However, the canopy layer shows great differences regarding turbulence characteristics when compared to the boundary layer, due to the inflection in the wind mean velocity profile, with this inflection becoming even greater over gust events Finnigan, ; de Langre, The differences between the two flows create a zone of turbulence near the top of a canopy; this zone is called the plane mixing layer and the turbulence is assimilated to Kelvin—Helmholtz instabilities Raupach et al.
Yet, the impact on flows of the presence of a snap point on plants composing such a canopy has to be investigated. Turbulence emerging in the mixing layer is, nevertheless, not random, with the major contribution of turbulent motions coming from coherent eddies of the scale of the canopy height Raupach et al. Indeed, the plants oscillate at their common natural frequency, with a different small phase between adjacent plants when slightly sheltered from the gust, leading to the impression of honami waves moving through the field Finnigan, When the gust frequency reaches the natural frequency of the plants, a resonant interaction results in a more pronounced waving and stronger honami which may lead to crop damage such as lodging Finnigan, This bibliographic synthesis enables to highlight several elements of thought related to the development and stability of flax.
The link between stem stiffness, induced movement, and lodging resistance is demonstrated. Thus, measuring the stem stiffness can therefore be a good indicator of lodging resistance, because it directly influences the resonance frequency. In addition, due to the geometry of the seed drills, the distances between the stems are very different depending on the axis considered.
In this way, the sowing course could be adapted according to the major wind direction, as is, for example, the case for seaside crops. By standardizing crop density, this would reduce the probability of reaching stem resonance frequency during severe weather events. Finally, interestingly, the presence of a flexible zone between the apex of the plant and the snap point during the growth of a flax stem could modify the turbulence induced by the wind at the top of the canopy and why not create a transitional regime more favorable to the plant stability.
Therefore, the presence of the snap point on the natural frequency and the motion of the plants would be interesting parameters to investigate. Moreover, wind-induced motion does not necessarily have a negative impact on yields. It can indeed influence plant growth and biomass allocation as well, phenomena that will be discussed in the following section.
Living plants have the ability to respond to a wide range of changes in their environments and they can regulate their patterns of growth in accordance with the stimuli. Major plant tropisms and their consequences on plant characteristics are detailed hereafter. Indeed, a mechanically induced stress can result from either a direct contact such as through passing animals or artificial rubbing of the plant, or from a non-tactile stress such as wind action or artificial ventilation Biddington, In the first case, the plant response is called thigmomorphogenesis Jaffe, and in the latter, it is often called seismomorphogenesis Mitchell, ; nonetheless, the term thigmomorphogenesis can also be found to describe the plant response to wind Moulia, ; Gardiner et al.
Such responses are the subject of many works, but little is known about the special case of flax. Generally speaking, mechanical stimuli have great consequences on the size and shapes of the herbaceous plants and trees, as well as on the mechanical properties of their constitutive tissues.
A first example is the widespread reduction in plant height, often accompanied by a greater radial growth of plants submitted to a mechanical stress in many canopies of both herbaceous and wood plants Figure 10C Mitchell, ; Biddington, ; Niklas, ; Moulia and Combes, This reduction of the plant height is consistent with the reduction of the stem buckling risk and the effective canopy profile to wind, i.
However, the shortening induced by a mechanical perturbation is not necessarily the adopted strategy, as, for example, wheat plants do not exhibit significant changes in stem height under the influence of wind sway Crook and Ennos, Similarly, the increase in plant diameter, even though very common, is not a fundamental rule; indeed, some herbaceous plants have no significant changes in stem diameter despite consistent mechanical stimuli Goodman and Ennos, ; Smith and Ennos, ; Paul-Victor and Rowe, , whereas a reduction in diameter of wind-exposed trees can sometimes be observed Cordero, Thus, the plant response to a mechanical stimulus can result in changes in the developmental rate, depending on the species, crop density, type of mechanical load, growth stage, growth form primary or secondary , plant life history, etc.
Regarding plant anatomy, changes in constitutive tissue geometry and configuration can also be induced by mechanical stimuli. Changes in tissue geometry can include modification of cell shape and thickness, whereas changes in tissue configuration consist of a modification of the cellulose MFA, arrangement of the cell wall layers, as well as reallocation of biomass in a cross-section.
As mentioned previously, at the whole plant morphological scale, there is no fundamental rule to describe a plant response to a mechanical perturbation at the cell scale neither. However, Gardiner et al.
Based on this latter review, Table 3 lists the main changes that may be most possibly applicable to flax. In terms of changes in mechanical properties of plants subjected to a mechanical perturbation, Jaffe and Forbes recorded two types of reactions: increase of the elastic resilience and intensification of the flexural stiffness. These two opposite types of biomechanical responses allow the plants to reach a better resistance to mechanical failure; indeed, increasing the elastic resilience [like it is the case for bean plants Phaseolus vulgaris Jaffe et al.
Table 3. Possible acclimation of flax plants as a result of a mechanical stress. Morphological, anatomical, and mechanical changes caused by mechanical perturbations are guided by a trade-off triangle, i. Thus, varietal selection, if aiming at optimizing the mechanical properties of flax, could lead to suboptimal performances in one of the two other points of the triangle Lachenbruch and Mcculloh, ; Badel et al. Interestingly, when plants are subjected to a mechanical stimulus, they become stronger toward mechanical failure by subsequent mechanical perturbations and exhibit an adaptive advantage by becoming less susceptible to injuries than controlled plants Jaffe and Telewski, If the plants are able to adapt to a natural mechanical perturbation, they also do so toward artificial solicitations.
Finally, if little is known about the impact of a mechanical stimulus on flax, it would be an interesting way to investigate whether it could influence the flax stability toward lodging as well as on mechanical properties of flax fibers in view of optimizing their applications in composite materials. Another tropism well reported in literature is gravitropism, the plant response to gravity. Actually, gravitropism and thigmomorphogenesis are challenging to disentangle; mechanosensing better studied in gravitropic responses is involved in both tropisms and their respective involvement, for example when organs experience bending, is difficultly determined Coutand, ; Gardiner et al.
Gravitropism is very important for agriculture, as it ensures some crops to come back ascending after lodging Chen et al. In the case of stem lodging inducing a gravitropic stimulus, the gravitropic response of plants is a stem curvature; at the end of the gravitropic reaction, the stem is generally straight Coutand, Figure 10D.
Gravitropism is attributed to the plant ability to perceive inclination in a first step Chauvet et al. This plant aptitude, called gravisensing hereafter, is particularly studied in the case of different herbaceous angiosperms Chauvet et al. As gravisensing is a very complex mechanism studied in several highly detailed articles Muday, ; Coutand et al. In a few words, gravisensing occurs by inclination perception through the sedimentation in the direction of gravity of specialized starch-filled amyloplasts, called statoliths Sack, In stems, these latter occur in specialized gravisensing cells named statocytes Sack, located in the innermost layer of endodermis cells of the cortex Fukaki et al.
The sedimentation of statoliths induces a biochemical signal modifying the movements of calcium ions, which then triggers the polar auxin transport and distribution Hoson et al. Changes in the auxin transport and distribution finally result in stem curvature upward. Nevertheless, auxin-related changes differ if considering herbaceous or woody angiosperms, more specifically between stems undergoing primary growth or secondary growth.
In fact, changes related to auxin distribution lead to two different types of gravitropic motors inciting stem bending. In the first case, if the stem undergoes primary growth, the gravitropic motor is the differential elongation growth Cosgrove, It creates an auxin gradient between the upper and lower sides of the stem, inducing an increase elongation growth on the lower side.
In elongating stems, this up-curving is a reaction along the entire growing organ; it starts at the apex, which then becomes straight first by decurving, and the straightening moved downward gradually along the elongating stem Bastien et al.
Finally, a remaining curvature is visible at the base of the elongating growth zone Bastien et al. Actually, gravisensing is accompanied by sensing of local curvature, so-called proprioception, that enables the control of the straightening autotropic response and posture control Moulia et al. In the second case, if the stem undergoes secondary growth, i.
In woody angiosperms, the reaction wood is more particularly named tension wood, whereas the xylem formed across from the reaction wood is called opposite wood Clair et al.
Once again, auxin is designated at the origin of the differential cambial growth in woody plants Kennedy and Farrar, ; Forest et al. Indeed, auxin is distributed toward the cambium and the center of the stem on the upper side of the stem and triggers tension wood formation; conversely, auxin is transported away from the cambium, toward the periphery of the stem on the lower side of the stem and triggers opposite wood formation Gerttula et al. Even though it is confirmed that tension wood is capable of generating high tensional stress moving the plant upward Fisher and Stevenson, ; Fang et al.
In fact, the similarity between opposite wood and normal wood, as well as on the composition and organization of tension wood is clearly accepted. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that the tensile stress in tension wood results from tensions into the cellulose microfibrils of the G-layer Clair et al. However, even if the generation of tension wood is essentially a characteristic of woody plants, recent studies highlighted its presence in herbaceous stems of Arabidopsis thaliana Wyatt et al.
Patten et al. These results interestingly confirm the ability of some herbaceous angiosperms to generate tension tissues, somehow analogous to tension wood of woody angiosperms. The study of flax gravitropism is of great interest as this plant naturally exhibits fibers with a G-layer in a normal plant growth, namely the flax primary fibers. In addition, xylem of flax exhibiting G-layer can be produced as a gravitropic response on the upper side of the stem Ibragimova et al.
This study of Ibragimova et al. However, the fiber thickening, still processing at this level, is impacted by the gravitropic response. As neither cell elongation nor cambium differentiation are involved in the fiber reaction, Ibragimova et al. Indeed, when comparing fibers of control plants and fibers from the opposite side of the stem, a significant increase of the fiber diameter is obtained on the pulling side side where reaction wood occurs in the xylem part ; in addition, the proportion of the lumen area from fiber area is significantly increased in fibers subjected to gravitropism, on both sides of the stem, with a much greater increase on the pulling side.
Finally, the MFA is also impacted by the gravitropic reaction, impacting the characteristics of the G-layer Ibragimova et al.
Thus, even if little is known about the impact of gravitropism on the mechanical properties of flax fibers and stems, changes in fiber thickening and morphology would most probably influence the fiber mechanical properties and their homogeneity.
Even though flax plants are able to recover from lodging through a gravitropic response, stem lodging happening during the early thickening process would jeopardize the mechanical properties of the fibers by impacting this development process. This makes lodging an even more undesired phenomenon, both from the farmer point of view by decreasing the fiber yield and the composite manufacturer side by impacting the fiber properties. If lodging appears closer to FM, fibers would be already well thickened; in this case, a negative direct impact on the fiber properties would be limited, but would still involve greater susceptibility toward diseases and harvesting problems.
In this latter situation, the gravitropic response would probably rely essentially on xylem tension wood, demonstrating once more the essential role of this tissue in the flax plant characteristics.
Flax is one of the oldest plants cultivated by mankind, essentially for the fibers contained in its stem. Flax fibers have always been intended for textile production, including clothing and upholstery. Moreover, a more contemporary application has been advanced over the past decades, namely, the use of flax fibers for composite reinforcement.
Growth stages of this plant are quite well described in literature, probably thank to the industrial potential of flax fibers. The processes of fiber development, from initiation to thickening, are the subject of several studies, essentially due to the uncommon properties of flax fibers, morphologically speaking but also due to the remarkable G-layer constituting most of the cell wall.
Flax, by being an annual herbaceous plant, providing fibers exhibiting a thick G-layer similar to tension wood as well as a substantial xylem quantity, gathers very promising characteristics to understand the mechanisms of plant responses to a large range of cultural conditions and external stimuli. Nevertheless, it remains difficult to find general average data regarding flax fiber composition, either during plant ontogeny or at FM. This is partially explained by the numerous existing flax varieties and irreproducible meteorological conditions between regions and years inducing a great composition variability, but also due to many protocols followed by authors.
In addition, if the meteorological conditions are hardly controllable, the influence of the variety on fiber composition and performances is of greater interest, as it relies on the mastered expertise of varietal selection. This latter has successfully selected flax varieties exhibiting high fiber yields, good disease resistance and a worthy stability toward lodging, while ensuring plant characteristics height and diameters remains adapted to existing agricultural machinery and scutching machines.
Thus, one can reasonably expect an efficient selection work toward the development of new flax varieties dedicated to technical applications. This innovative approach would come together with studies investigating flax plant adaptation and reinforcement mechanisms in natural or experimental environments, including a complementary interest in the xylem contribution to flax mechanisms.
To a larger extent, such investigations would also provide food for thought about the adaptation of flax to current climate changes, including global warming, in order to preserve the cultivation of this outstanding industrial crop.
AB and CB conceived the review topic. CG organized and wrote the manuscript. AB and CB reviewed the manuscript. All authors approved the manuscript. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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Sowing: Our linen is grown from flax seeds sown in Belgium, France, and the Netherlands between mid-March and mid-April.
The highest quality linen is grown in these regions, where the silty soil and oceanic climate is ideal for the plant. As with most textiles, China is currently the largest producer of linen. However, the production of high-quality linen products remains an important part of the cultures of many European countries, and Ireland, Italy, and Belgium remain significant linen producers.
Why are linen sheets so expensive? Think of linen as the fine jewelry of bedding. For one thing, linen is more difficult and costly to harvest and produce than most other materials. One good standard for linen quality is the tightness of the weave. Tighter weaves are almost always the defining mark of higher thread count linens, and therefore feel softer with less snag to the skin. Linen is still a much sought after fabric within the luxury market, mills use the quality of their linen as a differentiator from the competitors.
Despite being thicker and heavier than cotton, linen sheets are more breathable because of their lengthy, wide fibers. Linen is also naturally moisture wicking, meaning it keeps sleepers dry and cool. Cotton is very breathable and crisp. That makes linen ideal for summer and working in offices without any air conditioning we feel your pain.
Linen keeps you cooler than cotton. Two main factors that make linen cooler than cotton are its breathability and the ability to wick away moisture. This means you will sweat less when wearing linen, as the wide, lengthy fibers of linen allow air to pass through the fabric, keeping you cool.
While not a great choice for lounging around in during the summer, especially with the likes of cotton and linen offering superior alternatives, polyester is an excellent wicking material that can be used to draw sweat away from the body and allow it to evaporate much more quickly.
Avoid clothing in dark colors or jewel tones, like emerald, purple, or blue. You should also avoid black clothing, as it will trap light and make you feel more hot in hot weather. In the summer, plain old jeans and a T-shirt works fine.
The outer layer of fabric does get hotter because the black color absorbs more heat. But thin black clothing transmits that heat to the skin, making a person hotter. Begin typing your search term above and press enter to search.
Press ESC to cancel. Skip to content Home Social studies What is Flax used for in clothing? Social studies. Ben Davis December 24, What is Flax used for in clothing? What is flax linen fabric? What is the difference between linen and flax linen?
What part of the flax plant is used for linen? How much flax do you put in linen? How is linen made today? Where does the best linen fabric come from? What is flax grown for? How much flaxseed should I take a day? How hard is it to grow flax? Is flax invasive? Is flax lily poisonous? Is flax an annual or perennial? What can blue flax be used for?
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